Artykuły

Tom 18 Nr 3 (2023)

Rare Opportunity or History Revisited? The Pitfalls and Prospects of Ethical AI in Light of Public Ethical Responses to the Telegraph

Strony: 7-44

PDF (English)

Abstrakt

This article undertakes a comparative ethical analysis of the types of public expectations and concerns related to the development of two technologies: the telegraph and artificial intelligence. For each technology I provide a historical survey of public ethical expectations and concerns followed by a survey of the outcome or results of those expectations. Expectations and concerns of the telegraph era public are drawn together from popular and public literature and regulation of the period, whereas the expectations and concerns of our contemporary public AI engagement are drawn both from popular literature and public surveys, and supported by a manual search and ranking of a number of ethics related terms found in the raw feedback of the Stakeholder Consultation on the EU Commission High Level Expert Group Guidelines for Trustworthy AI. I then go on to compare those results, highlighting the similarities and differences between the two technologies, in particular the positive economic and socially responsible use expectations outcomes and the negative concerns regarding monopoly, regulation, and control. Finally, I argue that, taking the telegraph outcome as a guide, an ethical focus on accentuating positive expectations toward AI is more likely to produce definite results than concentrating upon prohibitory and negative approaches.

Bibliografia

Amies N., “Belgium upholds decision to ban ‘killer robots’,” The Brussels Times, January 15, 2023, https://www.brusselstimes.com/350980/belgium-upholds-decision-to-ban-killer-robots, (accessed: 24.10.2023).

“Artificial Intelligence Is Helping Make Peace With Israel,” Israel Today, February 10, 2023, https://www.israeltoday.co.il/read/artificial-intelligence-is-helping-make-peace-with-israel/ (accessed: 25.10.2023).

Auxier B., 64% of Americans say social media have a mostly negative effect on the way things are going in the U.S. today, Pew Research Center, 2020, https://www.pewre-search.org/fact-tank/2020/10/15/64-of-americans-say-social-media-have-a-mostly-negative-effect-on-the-way-things-are-going-in-the-u-s-today/ (accessed: 20.10.2023).

Bao Y., Li W., Ye Y., Zhang Q., Ethical Disputes of AI Surveillance: Case Study of Amazon, “7th International Conference on Financial Innovation and Economic Development (ICFIED 2022),” Atlantis Press, pp. 1339–1343, 10.2991/aebmr.k. 220307.220.

BBC, How AI could unlock world peace, 2019, https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190219-how-artificial-intelligence-could-unlock-world-peace (accessed: 19.10.2023).

Bektaş Y., “Futurism, Universalism, and the Moral Agency of the Electric Telegraph,” Zeitschrift für Globalgeschichte und vergleichende Gesellschaftsforschung 21 [6] (2011), pp. 22–43, https://doi.org/10.26014/j.comp.2011.06.02.

Berryhill J., Heang K.K., Clogher R., McBride K., Hello, World: Artificial intelligence and its use in the public sector, OECD Working Papers on Public Governance, 36 (2019), https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/726fd39d-en.

Bill C-27, An Act to enact the Consumer Privacy Protection Act, the Personal Information and Data Protection Tribunal Act and the Artificial Intelligence and Data Act and to make consequential and related amendments to other Acts, 1st Session, 44th Parliament, Canada, 2022 (first reading 16 June 2022).

Bordot F., “Artificial Intelligence, Robots and Unemployment: Evidence from OECD Countries,” Journal of Innovation Economics & Management 37 [1] (2022), pp. 117– 138. https://doi.org/10.3917/jie.037.0117.

Borenstein J., Grodinsky F.S., Howard A., Howard K., Miller W., Wolf M.J., “AI Ethics: A Long History and a Recent Burst of Attention,” Computer 54 [1] (2021), pp. 96–102, https://doi.org/10.1109/MC.2020.3034950.

Briggs C.F., Maverick A., The story of the telegraph and a history of the great Atlantic cable: a complete record of the inception, progress and final success of that undertaking, a general history of land and oceanic telegraphs, descriptions of telegraphic apparatus, and biographical sketches of the principal persons connected with the great work, New York: Rudd & Carleton 1858.

Bughin J., Seong J., Manyika J., Chui M., Joshi R., McKinsey Notes from the AI Frontier: Modeling the Impact of AI on the World Economy, Discussion Paper, 2018.

Carey J.W., Technology and Ideology: The Case of the Telegraph, Cambridge: Cambridge UP 1983.

Carpenter F.G., The North American Review, 154, 424 (March, 1892), pp. 380–382.

Cassell J., Cramer M., “High Tech or High Risk: Moral Panics about Girls Online,” [in:] Digital Youth, Innovation, and the Unexpected, T. McPherson (ed.), The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2008, pp. 53–76, https://doi.org/10.1162/dmal.9780262633598.053.

Council of Europe, AI Initiatives, 2023, https://www.coe.int/en/web/artificial-intelligence/national-initiatives (accessed: 24.10.2023).

Crawford K., The atlas of AI: Power, politics, and the planetary costs of artificial intelligence, Yale: Yale University Press2021.

Dastin J., “Amazon scraps secret AI recruiting tool that showed bias against women,” Reuters, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-amazon-com-jobs-automation-insight-idUSKCN1MK08G (accessed: 19.10.2023).

Dawson G.S., Desouza K.C., Denford J.S., Understanding artificial intelligence spending by the U.S. federal government, TechTank: Brookings 2022, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/techtank/2022/09/22/understanding-artificial-intelligence-spending-by-the-u-s-federal-government/ (accessed: 25.10.2023).

Dettmer J., “Possible First Use of AI-Armed Drones Triggers Alarm Bells,” VOA News, June 7, 2021, https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_possible-first-use-ai-armed-drones-triggers-alarm-bells/6206728.html (accessed: 25.10.2023).

Downey G., “Telegraph Messenger Boys: Crossing the Borders between History of Technology and Human Geography,” The Professional Geographer, 55 [2] (2003), pp. 134–145.

Du Boff R., “The Telegraph in Nineteenth-Century America: Technology and Monopoly,” Society for Comparative Study of Society and History 26 [4] (1984), pp. 571– 586, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0010417500011178.

Ekin A., “AI can help us fight climate change: But it has an energy problem, too,” Horizon: The EU Research and Innovation Magazine, European Commission, September 12 (2019), https://ec.europa.eu/research-and-innovation/en/horizon-magazine/ai-can-help-us-fight-climate-change-it-has-energy-problem-too (accessed: 25.10.2023).

European Commission High Level Expert Group on Trustworthy AI, Stakeholder Consultation on Guidelines’ first draft: Complete Stakeholder Feedback, 2019, https://ec.europa.eu/futurium/en/ethics-guidelines-trustworthy-ai/stakeholder-consultation-guidelines-first-draft.html#Top (accessed: 20.10.2023).

Fast E., Horvitz E., Long-Term Trends in the Public Perception of Artificial Intelligence, Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 31 [1] (2017), https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v31i1.10635.

FitzMaurice S., The Materiality of the Telegraph Revolution: A Visual Interview with Sophie FitzMaurice, UC Berkeley Social Science Matrix, September 22, 2022, https://matrix.berkeley.edu/research-article/the-materiality-of-the-telegraph-revolution-a-visual-interview-with-sophie-fitzmaurice/ (accessed: 25.10.2023).

Forman A.S., Glasser N.M., Madia R.D., “New York City’s Automated Employment Decision Tools Law Enforcement Postponed Until April 15, 2023,” National Law Review 8 [298] (2022), https://www.natlawreview.com/article/new-york-city-s-automated-employment-decision-tools-law-enforcement-postponed-until (accessed: 25.10.2023).

Fox Cahn A., “The first effort to regulate AI was a spectacular failure,” Fast Company, November 26, 2019, https://www.fastcompany.com/90436012/the-first-effort-to-regulate-ai-was-a-spectacular-failure (accessed: 23.10.2023).

Gartner, Gartner Says Digital Ethics is at the Peak of Inflated Expectations in the 2021 Gartner Hype Cycle for Privacy, September 30, 2021, https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2021-09-30-gartner-says-digital-ethics-is-at-the-peak-of-inflate (accessed: 21.10.2023).

The Gateway, Thinking machine myth hit by computer expert, University of Alberta, March 2, 1966, https://archive.org/details/GAT_1966030201/page/n1/mode/2up?q=machine (accessed: 25.10.2023).

Gordon J.S., A Thread across the Ocean: The Heroic Story of the Transatlantic Cable, New York, Walker & Co. 2002.

Green G., “Five ways AI is saving wildlife — from counting chimps to locating whales. The Age of Extinction — Artificial Intelligence,” Guardian UK, February 21, 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/feb/21/five-ways-ai-is-saving-wild-life-from-counting-chimps-to-locating-whales-aoe (accessed: 24.10.2023).

Hagendorff T., “Blind spots in AI ethics,” AI and Ethics, 2 (4) (2022), pp. 851–867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-021-00122-8.

Hagendorff T., “The ethics of AI ethics: An evaluation of guidelines,” Minds and Machines, 30 [1] (2020), pp. 99–120, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11023-020-09517-8.

Haidt J., “YES, SOCIAL MEDIA REALLY IS UNDERMINING DEMOCRACY Despite what Meta has to say”, The Atlantic, July 2022.

Halacy D.S. Jr., Computers — The Machines We Think With (Revised Edition), New York: Harper 1969.

Hedge F.H., The national weakness: a discourse delivered in the First Church, Brookline, on Fast day, Sept. 26, 1861, Leopold Classic Library 2017.

Höne K., “An Algorithm for Peace? AI in International Peace Mediation,” Israel Public Policy Institute. Digital Transformation, Diplomacy & International Politics, 2022, https://www.ippi.org.il/an-algorithm-for-peace-ai-in-international-peace-mediation/ (accessed: 25.10.2023).

House of Representatives, Hearings before the Subcommittees of the Committee on Appropriations: Second Supplemental Appropriation Bill for 1951, Washington: US Government Printing Office 1951, https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Hearings/m11Ga3g7o-gC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22thinking+machine%22&p-g=RA5-PA193&printsec=frontcover (accessed: 20.10.2023).

Howson K., Johnston H., Cole M., Ferrari F., Ustek‐Spilda F., Graham M., Unpaid labour and territorial extraction in digital value networks, Global Networks 2022.

Hughes A., “A Woman’s New York,” Reading Eagle, January 8, 1966, https://books.google.fr/books?id=3gUrAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA5&dq=artificial+intelligence&article_id=2048,3629321&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjkn5KnvJP2AhXSy4UKHfhlDb0Q6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&q=artificial%20intelligence&f=false (accessed: 25.10.2023).

Jepsen T.C., My Sisters Telegraphic: Women in the Telegraph Office, 1846–1950, Athens, Ohio: Ohio UP 2000.

King D., Lichtenstein J., “Climate repair: three things we must do now to stabilize the planet,” University of Cambridge, August 17, 2021, https://climatechampions.unfccc.int/climate-repair-three-things-we-must-do-now-to-stabilise-the-planet/ (accessed: 29.08.2023).

Knight H., “Want some Advice? Ask the Computer,” Deseret News, September 14th, 1966, p. 19, https://books.google.fr/books?id=J9BSAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA10&dq=minsky-+%22artificial+intelligence%22&article_id=3696,3135320&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiquuqknZv2AhVEx4UKHQc2DpMQ6AF6BAgHEAI#v=onepage&q=min-sky%20%22artificial%20intelligence%22&f=false (accessed: 20.10.2023).

Kumon T., “The first AI conflict? Israel’s Gaza operation gives glimpse of future,” Nikkei Asia, June 28, 2021, https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/The-first-AI-conflict-Israel-s-Gaza-operation-gives-glimpse-of-future (accessed: 24.10.2023).

Langin K., “Fake news spreads faster than true news on Twitter — thanks to people, not bots,” Science, March 8, 2018, https://www.science.org/content/article/fake-news-spreads-faster-true-news-twitter-thanks-people-not-bots (accessed: 23.10.2023).

Lauer D., “Facebook’s ethical failures are not accidental; they are part of the business model,” AI and Ethics 1 [4] (2021), pp. 395–403, https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-021-00068-x.

Lew B., Cater B., “The telegraph, co-ordination of tramp shipping, and growth in world trade, 1870–1910,” European Review of Economic History 10 [2] (2006), pp. 147–173, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1361491606001663.

Lewis C.I., Essays on the Foundation of Ethics, J. Lange (ed.), Albany: SUNY Press 2017.

Lin C., Ma C., Sun Y., Xu Y., “The telegraph and modern banking development, 1881–1936,” Journal of Financial Economics 141 [2] (2021), pp. 730–749, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2021.04.011.

Littman M.L, Ajunwa I., Berger G., Boutilier C., Currie M., Doshi-Velez F., Hadfield G., Horowitz M., Isbell C., Kitano H., Levy K., Lyons T., Mitchell M., Shah J., Sloman S., Valor S., Walsh T., Gathering Strength, Gathering Storms: The One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence, (AI100) 2021 Study Panel Report, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, September 2021, http://ai100.stanford.edu/2021-report (accessed: 22.10.2023).

Lockey S., Gillespie N., Curtis C., Trust in Artificial Intelligence: Australian Insights, The University of Queensland and KPMG Australia, 2020, https://doi.org/10.14264/b32f129.

Marks G., “Yes, you should monitor your remote workers — but not because you don’t trust them,” Guardian UK, September 25, 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/sep/25/monitor-workers-at-home-security-cybercrime (accessed: 20.10.2023).

McKinsey Global Survey on artificial intelligence, The state of AI in 2020, November 17, 2020, https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-analytics/our-in-sights/global-survey-the-state-of-ai-in-2020 (accessed: 22.10.2023).

Molè M., Just more surveillance? Rethinking the ‘pressing social need’ for AI surveillance under the ECHR, Cooperante, University of Lodz 2023, https://cooperante.uni.lodz.pl/2023/02/14/%EF%BB%BFjust-more-surveillance-rethinking-the-pressing-social-need-for-ai-surveillance-under-the-echr/ (accessed: 25.10.2023).

Morus I.R., “Back To The Victorian Future,” Noema, January 25, 2022, https://www.noemamag.com/back-to-the-victorian-future/ (accessed: 24.10.2023).

Niyazov S., AI-powered Monopolies and the New World Order, Towards Data Science, 2019, https://towardsdatascience.com/ai-powered-monopolies-and-the-new-world-order-1c56cfc76e7d#:~:text=THE%20RISE%20OF%20CORPORATE%20POWER&text=These%20companies%20include%20so-called,,%20Tencent),%20or%20BAT (accessed: 18.10.2023).

Orgerie A.C., Consommation énergétique et impacts environnementaux des systèmes distribués, Colloquium, LORIA, Université de Lorraine, March 2, 2023.

Pagano T.P., Loureiro R.B., Lisboa F.V.N., Peixoto R.M., Guimarães G.A.S., Cruz G.O.R., Araujo M.M., Santos L.L., Cruz M.A.S., Oliveira E.L.S., Winkler I., Nascimento E.G.S., “Bias and Unfairness in Machine Learning Models: A Systematic Review on Datasets, Tools, Fairness Metrics, and Identification and Mitigation Methods,” Big Data and Cognitive Computing, 7 [1] (2023), https://doi.org/10.3390/bdcc7010015.

Pew Research Center, Experts Doubt Ethical AI Design Will Be Broadly Adopted as the Norm in the Next Decade, June 16, 2021.

Public Opinion, A Comprehensive Survey of the Press Throughout the World on all Important Current Topics, 10, London, July-December 1866, https://www.google.fr/books/edition/Public_Opinion/34ir2y8OqG8C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=telegraph+and+the+poor&pg=PA119&printsec=frontcover (accessed: 24.10.2023).

Putnis P., “New Technology, the ‘control crisis,’ and government intervention: Lessons from Telegraphy in the 1870s,” [in:] Record of the Communications Policy & Research Forum, Metwork Insight Institute 2008.

Rahimi M., Moosavi S.M., Smit B., Hatton T.A., “Toward smart carbon capture with machine learning,” Cell reports physical science 2 [4] (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2021.100396.

Rao A.S., Gerard V., Sizing the prize: What’s the real value of AI for your business and how can you capitalise?, PwC’s Global Artificial Intelligence Study, 2017, https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/issues/data-and-analytics/publications/artificial-intelligence-study.html (accessed: 24.10.2023).

Rogers H., “Thoughts Suggested by the Failure of the Atlantic Telegraph,” Good Words, London, 6, (Nov 1865), pp. 835–840.

Russell W., “Boost for Scots computer industry,” Glasgow Herald, May 1 1986.

Sætra H.S., Danaher J., “To Each Technology Its Own Ethics: The Problem of Ethical Proliferation,” Philos. Technol 35 [93] (2022), https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-022-00591-7.

Sample I., “ChatGPT: what can the extraordinary artificial intelligence chatbot do?,” Guardian UK, January 13, 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/jan/13/chatgpt-explainer-what-can-artificial-intelligence-chatbot-do-ai (accessed: 23.10.2023).

Saran C., “Stanford University finds that AI is outpacing Moore’s Law”, Computer Weekly December 12, 2019, https://www.computerweekly.com/news/252475371/Stanford-University-finds-that-AI-is-outpacing-Moores-Law (accessed: 25.10.2023).

Sauer G., The Telegraph in Europe: A Complete Statement of the Rise and Progress of Telegraphy in Europe, showing the cost of construction and working expenses of telegraphic communications in the principal countries, etc. etc., Paris 1869.

Schiff D., Borenstein J., Biddle J., Laas K., “AI Ethics in the Public, Private, and NGO Sectors: A Review of a Global Document Collection,” IEEE Transactions on Technology and Society, 2 [1] (2021), pp. 31–42, https://doi.org/10.1109/TTS.2021.3052127.

Singler B., “Blessed by the algorithm: Theistic conceptions of artificial intelligence in online discourse,” AI & Society, 1 [11] (April 30, 2020), https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-020-00968-2.

Snow C.P., The Two Cultures, intr. S. Collini, Cambridge: Cambridge UP 1993 [1959].

Strubell E., Ganesh A., McCallum A., Energy and Policy Considerations for Deep Learning in NLP, Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Association for Computational Linguistics, Florence, Italy, 2019, pp. 3645–3650, 10.18653/v1/P19-1355.

Supp-Montgomerie J., When the Medium Was the Mission: The Atlantic Telegraph and the Religious Origins of Network Culture, New York: NY University Press 2021.

Tucker P., “AI Is Already Learning from Russia’s War in Ukraine, DOD Says,” Defense One, April 21, 2022, https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2022/04/ai-already-learning-russias-war-ukraine-dod-says/365978/ (accessed: 25.10.2023).

Turner Lee N., Resnick P., Barton G., Algorithmic bias detection and mitigation: Best practices and policies to reduce consumer harms, Brookings 2019, https://www.brookings.edu/research/algorithmic-bias-detection-and-mitigation-best-practices-and-policies-to-reduce-consumer-harms/ (accessed: 23.10.2023).

Thoreau H.D., Walden: or, Life in the Woods, Boston: Ticknor and Fields 1854.

Toews R., “These Are The Startups Applying AI To Tackle Climate Change,” Forbes, June 20, 2021, https://www.forbes.com/sites/robtoews/2021/06/20/these-are-the-startups-applying-ai-to-tackle-climate-change/?sh=6874a4e27b26 (accessed: 25.10.2023).

US Department of State, Political Declaration on Responsible Military Use of Artificial Intelligence and Autonomy, 2023, https://www.state.gov/political-declaration-on-responsible-military-use-of-artificial-intelligence-and-autonomy/ (accessed: 20.10.2023).

Van Den Eede Y., The beauty of detours: A Batesonian philosophy of technology, New York: State University of New York Press 2019.

Wache B., Information Frictions, Global Capital Markets, and the Telegraph, Beiträge zur Jahrestagung des Vereins für Socialpolitik 2021: Climate Economics, Kiel, Hamburg: ZBW – Leibniz Information Centre for Economics 2021.

Ward O., A Labor Catechism of Political Economy: A Study for the People Comprising the Principal Arguments for and Against the Prominent Declarations of the Industrial Party, requiring that the State Assume Control of Industries, Self-Published 1877–1892, Washington 1878.

Waterlow S.S., “Fire and Police Telegraph,” Journal of the Society of Arts 6 [266] (London, December 25, 1857), https://www.jstor.org/stable/41334442?x=-768.0821596244132&y=-356.78122198225395&w=1527.0821596244132&h=1441.7812219822538&index=0&seq=5 (accessed: 24.10.2023).

Weissman J., “ChatGPT Is a Plague Upon Education,” Inside Higher Ed.com, February 9, 2023, https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2023/02/09/chatgpt-plague-up-on-education-opinion (accessed: 8.03.2023).

Western Union Telegraph Company, Statement: The proposed union of the telegraph and postal systems, Statement of the Western Union Telegraph Company, Welch, Bigelow, Cambridge MA 1869.

“Which countries have banned TikTok, and why?,” EuroNews, March 13, 2023, https://www.euronews.com/next/2023/03/13/which-countries-have-banned-tiktok-cyberse-curity-data-privacy-espionage-fears (accessed: 25.10.2023).

Wiener N., Cybernetics: or Control and Communication of the Animal and the Machine, Cambridge MA: MIT Press 1961 [1948].

Wilson B., Heyday: the 1850s and the dawn of the global age, New York: Basic Books 1980.

Wilson G., The Progress of the Telegraph. Being the Introductory Lecture on Technology for 1858–9, London: Macmillan 1859.

Winston B., Media Technology and Society, a History: From the Telegraph to the Internet, London: Routledge 1998.

Zhang D., Maslej N., Brynjolfsson E. Etchemendy J., Lyons T., Manyika J., Ngo H., Niebles J.C., Sellitto M., Sakhaee E., Shoham Y., Clark J., Perrault R., The AI Index 2022 Annual Report, AI Index Steering Committee, Stanford Institute for Human-Centered AI, Stanford University, 2022, https://aiindex.stanford.edu/wp-con-tent/uploads/2022/03/2022-AI-Index-Report_Master.pdf (accessed: 20.10.2023).

Licencja

Creative Commons License

Utwór dostępny jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa 4.0 Międzynarodowe.